2009年考研英语全题型高分强化教程(7)

Directions:

Choose the most suitable one from the list A~F for each numbered subheading (1~5). There is one extra choice which you do not need to use.

Teaching Students With Autism

Autism is a disability syndrome characterized principally by significant problems in the development of communication and social functioning. With appropriate teaching, all students with autism can learn.

1. _________________

Students with autism have significant challenges in understanding and using language for communication. Classroom environments must provide students with information on events, activities, and expectations in a manner that students with autism can easily understand. Visual activity schedules may be used to provide students with an overview of the instructional day and information on tasks that will be assigned. Many teachers also find mini-schedules helpful; they provide a visual analysis of the steps in a task or assignment that need completion by the student. In addition to providing supports for understanding classroom expectations, many students will also need supports for communicating to others. While most students with autism will learn to use speech to communicate, many still have great difficulty in expressing their needs and desires. They may need to use visual systems, sign language, or augmentative devices as an additional form of expressive communication.

2. _______________

It is important that the classroom environment provides activities and materials that are interesting and motivating. Actively engaging the student within instructional activities is critical to effective instruction. The teacher should observe the student in multiple activities and interview family members to identify the motivating activities or objects for the student. These preferred objects and activities may be used for instruction, or as reinforcers for activity engagement or completion. Instructional arrangements should also provide opportunities for choice-making to the student. Research has shown that when students have an opportunity to choose the activity, location, or materials for an instructional task, they are more likely to be engaged in the activity. Providing the student with frequent and personally meaningful reinforcement is often critical to sustaining motivation to engage in instruction and persist with activities.

3. _______________

Discrete trial training is an effective instructional format for teaching specific skills in an intensive, efficient manner. Skills are taught within a highly structured, one-to-one format providing clear and concise instruction, an additional prompt (as necessary), and an explicit reinforcer (reward) for performing the skill successfully. Discrete trial training typically uses a least-to-most prompting hierarchy, moving from a verbal prompt to physical guidance when verbal and nonverbal prompts are inadequate. Trials of instruction are provided on a single behavior in a massed fashion (one after another) with only a brief pause between trials.

Activity-based instruction describes the instruction of targeted skills within activities and routines that are meaningful for the student. Instructional trials are embedded within student-initiated, routine, or planned activities. Skills are taught within relevant activities and across contexts, increasing the probability that the student will generalize the skill to noninstructional activities and environments. For example, an arrival routine for a student may include putting his backpack away, finding his desk, and taking out his daily work folder. If the student were learning how to greet others, request help, and follow a visual schedule, skill instruction could be embedded in the arrival routine and within multiple activities over the day so that an adequate number of instructional trials are provided to the student. Systematic instruction is used within each of those activities to provide instruction on the embedded skill.

Students with autism may also be taught effectively in small groups. In inclusive classrooms, nondisabled peers have been effective in providing instructional support. Cooperative learning groups also provide a format for including the student with autism who may be learning skills that are different from his peers.

4. ____________________

Some students with autism may exhibit excessive passivity, while others display patterns of disruptive or even destructive behaviors. Years ago, the common response to these behaviors was punishment, time out, or exclusion to stop or suppress the behavior problems. The currently preferred approach is known as positive behavior support (PBS), a proactive, constructive educational approach for resolving behavior problems. It is based on extensive research as well as principles regarding the rights of all students to be treated with dignity and to have access to educational opportunities. The PBS approach is supported by the discipline regulations of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).

PBS involves a functional behavioral assessment (FBA) and the subsequent development and implementation of an individualized behavior support plan. The FBA process gathers information about the purpose or "function" of the behavior and the circumstances associated with its occurrences and nonoccurrences. The results of the FBA contribute to the individualized behavior support plan, which usually includes procedures for teaching alternatives to the behavior problems, and alterations to the environmental and instructional circumstances most associated with the problems. Such alterations can involve aspects of the curriculum, instructional techniques, social milieu or other feature linked by the FBA to behavior problems. The PBS intervention helps prevent problems from occurring, and helps the student acquire more effective, desirable ways for interacting with the environment.

5.____________________

The focus of instruction shifts as students with autism move from early childhood programs through elementary school to secondary settings. In the early years, instruction focuses on developing communication, social interaction, and adaptive behavior. As the child ages, elementary programs may focus more on academic instruction in addition to teaching language and social interaction skills. In secondary programs, instruction should shift to preparing the student for adulthood.

Instruction for young children should begin as soon as the disability is identified. Effective early intervention programs are ones that directly teach early communication and social interaction skills, use a functional approach in addressing problem behavior, provide intensive and systematic instruction, provide parent instruction and family support, and provide transition support as the child enters preschool.

In elementary school, instruction should support the child's growth in skill areas that are delayed and promote growth in areas of strength. Curriculum adaptations may be used to assist students in progressing in the traditional academic areas. School programs should also focus on helping the student learn how to negotiate social environments and develop friendships.

In the secondary and high school years, instruction should focus on the areas identified in the transition plan. The transition plan addresses post-school outcomes for work, community living, community participation, and recreation activities. Instruction for the transitioning student may include community work experience, using public transportation, and learning skills that will be important for living in the community. In high school, instruction may continue within general education settings although an individual student's schedule may reflect a greater emphasis on the importance of learning relevant post-school skills. For example, a student's schedule may include classes in computer, cooking, and chorus instead of courses in chemistry, algebra, and American literature.

[A] Instructional Formats

[B] Communication Issues

[C] Positive Behavior Support

[D] Active engagement

[E] Motivational Issues

[F] Age Span Considerations

1.    2.    3.     4.    5. 

III. Translation

Effective communication with people of different cultures is especially challenging. Cultures provide people with ways of thinking-ways of seeing, hearing, and interpreting the world. Thus the same words can mean different things to people from different cultures, even when they talk the "same" language. (1)When the languages are different, and translation has to be used to communicate, the potential for misunderstandings increases.

Stella Ting-Toomey describes three ways in which culture interferes with effective cross-cultural understanding. First is what she calls "cognitive constraints". (2)These are the frames of reference or world views that provide a backdrop that all new information is compared to or inserted into.

Second are "behavior constraints". (3)Each culture has its own rules about proper behavior which affect verbal and nonverbal communication. Whether one looks the other person in the eye or not; whether one says what one means overtly or talks around the issue; how close the people stand to each other when they are talking-all of these and many more are rules of politeness which differ from culture to culture.

Ting-Toomey's third factor is "emotional constraints". Different cultures regulate the display of emotion differently. Some cultures get very emotional when they are debating an issue. They yell, they cry, they exhibit their anger, fear, frustration, and other feelings openly. (4)Other cultures try to keep their emotions hidden, exhibiting or sharing only the "rational" or factual aspects of the situation.

All of these differences tend to lead to communication problems. (5)If the people involved are not aware of the potential for such problems, they are even more likely to fall victim to them, although it takes more than awareness to overcome these problems and communicate effectively across cultures.答案与题解 

Part B 小标题选择

1．[B]  这一部分讲的是患孤独症孩子的总体症状，他们在理解和使用语言进行交际方面存在困难。从第二段反复出现的communication一词可以判断[B] Communication Issues为这一部分小标题。

2. E.  这一部分讲的是教室环境应该为患孤独症孩子提供有趣和有激励效果的活动和材料，同样也要让孩子有选择的机会，这样他们就更有可能投入到这些活动中去。所以选Motivational Issues。

3. [A]  这一部分开始更详细地探讨指导方法。离散式的试验式训练证明是一种有效的指导形式。另外还有基于活动的指导，有分组指导，因此选指导形式（Instructional Formats）。

4. [C]  患孤独症的孩子行为方式被动，有时还会表现出分裂性或破坏性的行为。以前对这类行为的应对方法是惩罚、压制和阻止。现在一种更好的方法被称为积极行为支持(PBS)。所以选C。

5. F.   这一部分分别讨论了对不同年龄层次的孩子的指导方法。该部分第二段讲对幼儿的指导。第三段讲对小学阶段孩子的指导。第四段讲对中学阶段孩子的指导。因此不同年龄段的孩子指导侧重点有所不同。

III. Translation.

1. potential这里用作名词，可以翻译成"可能性"。例如She recognized the potential for error in the method being used. 她意识到在所采用的方法中可能出错。本句应译为：当语言不同，必须使用翻译来交流时，误解的可能性上升。

2. 这个句子中跟了两个定语从句，其中第一个that后的定语从句修饰frames of reference or world views，第二个定语从句嵌在第一个从句内，修饰backdrop。本句应译为：它们是参照系和世界观，这种参照系和世界观提供一个背景，将所有新的信息与之进行比较或插入。

3. which引导的定语从句修饰rules。verbal这里指语言的，nonverbal与之相对，指非语言的。本句应译为：每种文化都有自己关于合适举止的规则，这些规则影响语言的和非语言的交际。

4. exhibiting or sharing现在分词做状语，修饰主句。本句应译为：其他文化尽力掩藏他们的感情，只展示或分享境况的"理性的"或实际的方面。

5. 这个句子中有两个从句，一个是if引导的条件状语从句，一个是although引导的让步状语从句。本句应译为：如果有关的人没有意识到这些问题的潜在可能，他们更容易成为这些问题的受害者，尽管要克服这些问题，进行有效的跨文化交际，仅仅意识到这些问题的潜在可能还不够。