8. THE EITHER-OR THINKING
THIS IS THE SO-CALLED BLACK-OR-WHITE FALLACY. ESSENTIALLY, IT SAYS "EITHER
YOU BELIEVE WHAT I'M SAYING OR YOU MUST BELIEVE EXACTLY THE OPPOSITE." HERE
IS AN EXAMPLE OF THE BLACK-OR-WHITE FALLACY:
SINCE YOU DON'T BELIEVE THAT THE EARTH IS TEETERING ON THE EDGE OF
DESTRUCTION, YOU MUST BELIEVE THAT POLLUTION AND OTHER ADVERSE EFFECTS THAT
MAN HAS ON THE ENVIRONMENT ARE OF NO CONCERN WHATSOEVER.
THE ARGUMENT ABOVE ASSUMES THAT THERE ARE ONLY TWO POSSIBLE ALTERNATIVES
OPEN TO US. THERE IS NO ROOM FOR A MIDDLE GROUND.
9. THE "ALL THINGS ARE EQUAL" FALLACY
THIS FALLACY IS COMMITTED WHEN IT IS ASSUMED, WITHOUT JUSTIFICATION, THAT
BACKGROUND CONDITIONS HAVE REMAINED THE SAME AT DIFFERENT TIMES/LOCATIONS.
IN MOST INSTANCES, THIS IS AN UNWARRANTED ASSUMPTION FOR THE SIMPLE REASON
THAT THINGS RARELY REMAIN THE SAME OVER EXTENDED PERIODS OF TIME, AND
THINGS RARELY REMAIN THE SAME FROM PLACE TO PLACE.
THE LAST DEMOCRAT WINNER OF THE NEW HAMPSHIRE PRIMARY WON THE GENERAL
ELECTION. THIS YEAR, THE WINNER OF THE NEW HAMPSHIRE PRIMARY WILL WIN THE
GENERAL ELECTION.
THE ASSUMPTION OPERATIVE IN THIS ARGUMENT IS THAT NOTHING HAS CHANGED SINCE
THE LAST PRIMARY. NO EVIDENCE OR JUSTIFICATION IS OFFERED FOR THIS
ASSUMPTION.
10. THE FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION
THE FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION OCCURS WHEN A WORD OR PHRASE THAT HAS MORE THAN
ONE MEANING IS EMPLOYED IN DIFFERENT MEANINGS THROUGHOUT THE ARGUMENT.
"EVERY SOCIETY IS, OF COURSE, REPRESSIVE TO SOME EXTENT - AS SIGMUND FREUD
POINTED OUT, REPRESSION IS THE PRICE WE PAY FOR CIVILIZATION." (JOHN P.
ROCHE- POLITICAL COLUMNIST)
IN THIS EXAMPLE, THE WORD REPRESSION IS USED IN TWO COMPLETELY DIFFERENT
CONTEXTS. "REPRESSION" IN FREUD'S MIND MEANT RERSTRICTING SEXUAL AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL DESIRES. "REPRESSION" IN THE SECOND CONTEXT DOES NOT MEAN
RESPRESSION OF INDIVIDUAL DESIRES, BUT GOVERNMENT RESTRICTION OF INDIVIDUAL
LIBERTIES, SUCH AS THAT IN A TOTALITARIAN STATE.
11. NON SEQUITUR
THIS MEANS "DOES NOT FOLLOW," WHICH IS SHORT FOR: THE CONCLUSION DOES NOT
FOLLOW FROM THE PREMISE. TO SAY, "THE HOUSE IS WHITE; THEREFORE IT MUST BE
BIG" IS AN EXAMPLE. IT MAY BE A BIG HOUSE BUT THERE IS NO INTRINSIC
CONNECTION WITH ITS BEING WHITE.
12. ARGUMENT AD POPULUM
A GROUP OF KINDERGARTNERS ARE STUDYING A FROG, TRYING TO DETERMINE ITS
SEX. "I WONDER IF IT'S A BOY FROG OR A GIRL FROG," SAYS ONE STUDENT. "I
KNOW HOW WE CAN TELL!" PIPES UP ANOTHER. "ALL RIGHT, HOW?" ASKS THE
TEACHER, RESIGNED TO THE WORST. BEAMS THE CHILD: "WE CAN VOTE."
THIS IS ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM, THE BELIEF THAT TRUTH CAN BE DETERMINED BY
MORE OR LESS PUTTING IT TO A VOTE. DEMOCRACY IS A VERY NICE THING, BUT IT
DOESN'T DETERMINE TRUTH. POLLS ARE GOOD FOR TELLING YOU WHAT PEOPLE THINK,
NOT WHETHER THOSE THOUGHTS ARE CORRECT.
COMMON STUDENT ERRORS
WE'VE GRADED ESSAYS FROM THOUSANDS OF STUDENTS AND WE SEE RECURRING ERRORS
TIME AND TIME AGAIN. THE MOST COMMON ERROR ON THE ANALYSIS OF ARGUMENT
ESSAY IS "SPLITTING HAIRS."
SPLITTING HAIRS REFERS TO TRYING TO DISSECT ERRORS THAT DO NO FALL INTO THE
CATEGORIES LISTED HERE. REMEMBER THAT ALL QUESTIONS HAVE SERIOUS ERRORS.
THE DANGER IS THAT YOU COULD GET DISTRACTED ON A MINOR ISSUE AND MISS THE
SERIOUS ERRORS THAT THE E-RATER AND THE GRADER WANT TO SEE.
3C. ANALYSIS OF ARGUMENT: TEMPLATE
TEMPLATE
AS WITH THE ISSUE ESSAY, THERE IS NO SINGLE "CORRECT," WAY TO ORGANIZE AN
ARGUMENT ESSAY. IN OUR VIEW, HOWEVER, YOUR ESSAY SHOULD INCLUDE
SEPARATE "INTRODUCTION" AND "CONCLUSION" PARAGRAPHS, AS WELL AS AT LEAST
TWO "BODY" PARAGRAPHS IN WHICH YOU DEVELOP YOUR CRITIQUE OF THE STATED
ARGUMENT. THE FOLLOWING TEMPLATE SPELLS OUT THIS STRUCTURE IN MORE DETAIL,
AND EACH OF THE SAMPLE ANALYSIS OF ARGUMENT ESSAYS IN THIS BOOK FOLLOW THIS
BASIC PATTERN.
YOU DO NOT HAVE TO ADHERE STRICTLY TO THIS FORMAT IN ORDER TO WRITE AN
EFFECTIVE ARGUMENT ESSAY. YOU MAY FIND THAT SOME OTHER FORM WORKS BETTER
FOR YOU, ESPECIALLY FOR THE BODY OF YOUR ESSAY. ALSO, THE NUMBERS OF
SENTENCES INDICATED FOR EACH PARAGRAPH HERE ARE MERELY SUGGESTIONS OR
GUIDELINES, NOT HARD-AND-FAST RULES.
(NOTE: THE TRANSITIONAL PHRASES USED HERE ARE PURPOSELY SIMPLISTIC; DO NOT
SIMPLY "PARROT" THEM WORD-FOR-WORD IN YOUR ESSAY OR ADOPT A MECHANISTIC
FILL-IN THE BLANK APPROACH. IF YOU DO, YOUR ESSAY MIGHT APPEAR STILTED OR
CONTRIVED.)
INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH (2-4 SENTENCES)
TRY TO ACCOMPLISH THREE GOALS IN YOUR INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH:
BRIEFLY RESTATE THE ARGUMENT.
BRIEFLY TRACE THE ARGUMENT'S LINE OF REASONING.
INDICATE THE EXTENT TO WHICH THE ARGUMENT IS LOGICALLY CONVINCING.
IF POSSIBLE, SUM UP YOUR ARGUMENTS IN ONE SENTENCE (OR TWO BRIEF
SENTENCES).
HERE'S A SAMPLE TEMPLATE FOR THE FIRST PARAGRAPH THAT ACCOMPLISHES THESE
GOALS:
THE AUTHOR CONCLUDES THAT____________, BECAUSE ________. THE AUTHOR'S LINE
OF REASONING IS THAT ______________. THIS ARGUMENT IS UNCONVINCING FOR
SEVERAL REASONS; IT IS____________ AND IT USES _____________.
FIRST BODY PARAGRAPH (3-5 SENTENCES)
IN THE FIRST BODY PARAGRAPH YOUR GOAL IS TO CRITIQUE ONE OF THE FOLLOWING:
THE REASONING OF THE ARGUMENT
ONE OF THE PREMISES OF THE ARGUMENT
ONE OF THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THE ARGUMENT
HERE'S A SAMPLE TEMPLATE FOR THIS PARAGRAPH THAT ACCOMPLISHES THIS GOAL:
FIRST OF ALL, ____________________________ IS BASED UPON THE QUESTIONABLE
ASSUMPTION ________________________________. THAT _______________,
HOWEVER, _________________. MOREOVER, ________________________.
SECOND BODY PARAGRAPH (3-4 SENTENCES)
THE PURPOSE OF THE SECOND PARAGRAPH IS TO ADDRESS ONE OF THE FOLLOWING:
THE REASONING OF THE ARGUMENT
ONE OF THE PREMISES OF THE ARGUMENT
ONE OF THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THE ARGUMENT
HERE'S A SAMPLE TEMPLATE FOR THIS PARAGRAPH THAT ACCOMPLISHES THIS GOAL:
SECONDLY, THE AUTHOR ASSUMES THAT_________________________.
HOWEVER, __________________________. IT SEEMS EQUALLY REASONABLE TO ASSUME
THAT ____________________.
THIRD (AND OPTIONAL FOURTH) BODY PARAGRAPH
IN THIS PARAGRAPH YOUR GOAL IS TO CRITIQUE ONE OF THE FOLLOWING:
THE REASONING OF THE ARGUMENT
ONE OF THE PREMISES OF THE ARGUMENT
ONE OF THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THE ARGUMENT
HERE'S A SAMPLE TEMPLATE FOR THIS PARAGRAPH THAT ACCOMPLISHES THIS GOAL:
FINALLY, _______________________________________. THE AUTHOR FAILS TO
CONSIDER __________________________________. FOR EXAMPLE,
__________________. BECAUSE THE AUTHOR'S ARGUMENT _________________.
FINAL PARAGRAPH (2-3 SENTENCES)
IN THE FINAL PARAGRAPH YOUR GOALS ARE TO:
SUMMARIZE YOUR CRITIQUE OF THE ARGUMENT
STATE THE MAIN POINT OF YOUR ESSAY
THE FINAL PARAGRAPH IS NOT THE PLACER TO INTRODUCE NEW ARGUMENTS OR ISSUES.
SAMPLE TEMPLATE:
IN SUM, I AGREE THAT______________________. HOWEVER, ____________________;
ON BALANCE, _____________________.
3D. ANALYSIS OF ARGUMENT: TIMING
HOW TO WRITE A 300-WORD ESSAY IN 30 MINUTES
SAMPLE ESSAY:
THE PROBLEM OF POORLY TRAINED POLICE OFFICERS THAT HAS PLAGUED NEW YORK
CITY SHOULD BECOME LESS SERIOUS IN THE FUTURE. THE CITY HAS INITIATED
COMPREHENSIVE GUIDELINES THAT OBLIGE POLICE OFFICERS IN MULTICULTURALISM
AND PROPER WAYS TO DEAL WITH THE CITY'S ETHNIC GROUPS.
EXPLAIN HOW LOGICALLY PERSUASIVE YOU FIND THIS ARGUMENT. IN DISCUSSING YOUR
VIEWPOINT, ANALYZE THE ARGUMENT'S LINE OF REASONING AND ITS USE OF
EVIDENCE. ALSO EXPLAIN WHAT, IF ANYTHING, WOULD MAKE THE ARGUMENT MORE
VALID AND CONVINCING OR HELP YOU TO BETTER EVALUATE ITS CONCLUSION.
STEP 1: DISSECT THE ISSUE/ARGUMENT (2 MINUTES)
WHAT IS THE TOPIC AND SCOPE OF THE ARGUMENT?
TOPIC: THE PROBLEM OF POORLY TRAINED POLICE OFFICERS
SCOPE: A GIVEN SOLUTION, CENTERING ON MANDATORY CLASSES
THE ARGUMENT'S CONCLUSION?
THE PROBLEM OF POORLY TRAINED POLICE OFFICERS THAT HAS PLAGUED NEW YORK
CITY SHOULD BECOME A LESS SERIOUS IN THE FUTURE.
WHAT'S THE EVIDENCE?
THE CITY HAS INITIATED COMPREHENSIVE GUIDELINES THAT OBLIGE POLICE OFFICERS
IN MULTICULTURALISM AND PROPER WAYS TO DEAL WITH THE CITY'S ETHNIC GROUPS.
ARGUMENTS TYPICALLY WILL BE STRUCTURED IN ONE OF TWO WAYS:
1) CONCLUSION… BECAUSE…. EVIDENCE
2) EVIDENCE…. THEREFORE…. CONCLUSION
SUMMARIZE THE ARGUMENT:
THE PROBLEM OF POOR POLICE OFFICERS WILL BECOME LESS SERIOUS…
(CONCLUSION)
MULTICULTURALISM TRAINING
(EVIDENCE)
HOW DOES THE ARGUMENT USE ITS EVIDENCE?
IT USES EVIDENCE OF MULTICULTURALISM TRAINING AS EVIDENCE TO CONCLUDE THAT
FUTURE IMPROVEMENT IS LIKELY.
STEP 2: SELECT THE POINTS YOU WILL MAKE (5 MINUTES)
DOES THE ARGUMENT MAKE ANY ASSUMPTIONS? THAT IS, ARE THERE GAPS BETWEEN
EVIDENCE AND CONCLUSION?
1. MULTICULTURALISM TRAINING WILL IMPROVE THE CURRENT SITUATION
2. THE PRESENT POLICE FORCE HAS POOR TRAINING IN MULTICULTURAL ISSUES
3. THE CURRENT POLICE OFFICERS IN THE FIELD WILL GO BACK FOR RE-TRAINING.
UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCES WOULD THESE ASSUMPTIONS BE VALID?
1. EVIDENCE MAKING IT CLEAR THAT THE PRESENT POLICE OFFICERS HAVE NOT
ALREADY HAD MULTICULTURAL TRAINING.
2. EVIDENCE SHOWING THAT MULTICULTURAL TRAINING MAKES BETTER POLICE
OFFICERS.
3. EVIDENCE SHOWING THAT UNTRAINED POLICE OFFICERS WILL NOT BE TEACHING IN
THE FUTURE.
STEP 3: ORGANIZE (1 MINUTE)
USE THE PAGES
SKETCH IN THE OUTLINE.
A. STATE A CLEAR THESIS FOR THE ESSAY.
B. MAKE EACH HEADING CORRESPOND TO A PARAGRAPH.
C. MAKE SURE THAT THERE ARE AT LEAST FIVE PARAGRAPHS.
D. MAKE SURE THAT EACH HEADING CORRESPONDS TO A TOPIC SENTENCE.
E. BE SURE THAT THERE IS A BEGINNING AND ENDING PARAGRAPH, WHICH TIE THE
ESSAY TOGETHER.
STEP 4: TYPE YOUR ESSAY (20 MINUTES)
WRITE YOUR PARAGRAPHS IN THE ESSAY WITH GREAT CARE.
A. EACH PARAGRAPH SHOULD HAVE A TOPIC SENTENCE, WHICH RELATES TO THE
CENTRAL IDEA OF THE ENTIRE ESSAY.
B. EVERYTHING IN EACH PARAGRAPH SHOULD SUPPORT THE IDEA IN THE TOPIC
SENTENCE OF THE PARAGRAPH IN (4A) ABOVE. FOR EACH PARAGRAPH, STATE AN IDEA
THEN GIVE EXAMPLES TO SUPPORT THE IDEA OR EXPLAIN THE IDEA COMPLETELY.
STEP 5: PROOFREAD THE ESSAY (2 MINUTES)
MAKE SURE YOUR "KEY" WORDS: TRANSITIONAL PHRASES, MAJOR POINTS, EXAMPLES,
ARE PROPERLY SPELLED SO THAT THE E-RATER MAY IDENTIFY THEM PROPERLY AND
KNOW THAT YOU HAVE A WELL WRITTEN ESSAY.
